Pharmacogenetics And Pharmacogenomics In Pharmacy Practice Biology Essay

Pharmacogenetics And Pharmacogenomics In Pharmacy Practice Biology Essay The study of the interaction between genetics and therapeutic drugs is variously called pharmacogenetics or pharmacogenomics. The differences between the two are the initial approach of the science: Pharmacogenetics starts with an unexpected drug response result and looks for a genetic cause. Pharmacogenomics, on the other hand, begins with looking for genetic differences within a population that explain certain observed responses to a drug or susceptibility to a health problem (The Australasian Genetics Resource Book, 2007). Pharmacogenetics refers to the study of inter-individual specific genetic variation (Zika et al. 2006). The term pharmacogenetics is occasionally used in a limiting sense to describe how different gene variants affect drug-response but it can also be defined more broadly as the study of the effect of heredity on human drug-response (Newton et al. 2007). Factors that influence how an individual responds to medication include their external and internal environments and overall health, as well as their genetic make-up. The goal of pharmacogenetics is to understand the role that an individuals genetic make-up plays in how well a medicine works, as well as what side effects are likely to occur in the individuals body. Understanding this can help tailor drugs in the future best suited for a particular individual (personalised medicine) or group (The Australian Genetics Resource Book, 2007). The small differences in the genes between different population groups, or some families within a population group, that have built up over the generations can mean that they react differently to medicines. However, some diseases, notably cancers, develop in cells which have an altered genetic constitution, so that the genetic make-up of the diseased tissue is no longer the same as that of the person in which it is present. Specific genes present in the diseased tissue may play a critical role in determining the optimum treatment. To establish this, it will therefore be necessary to identify the genetic make-up of the cancer itself: testing the patient before a cancer has developed is of no use, because the genetic changes are only present in the cancer cells and not in the normal host tissues (Nuffield Council on Bioethics, 2003). Some potential benefits of pharmacogenetics include the following: More powerful medicines: Drugs may be developed targeting specific health problems that will maximise therapeutic effects but decrease damage to nearby healthy cells Safer drugs the first time: Doctors could have an idea which drug to use based on a genetic profile versus trial and error, decreasing the likelihood of adverse reactions More accurate methods of determining dosages: Instead of dosages being based on body weight and age, it would be based on an individuals genetics. This would decrease the likelihood of an overdose. Better vaccines: Vaccines made of genetic material could activate the immune system to have all the benefits of existing vaccines but with reduced risks of infections (The Australasian Genetics Resource Book, 2007). Implications of pharmacogenetics in practice are vast and encompass broad areas such as: Drug response the effects of angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors have been found to be greater in people of European or UK ancestry than African-Americans. Pre-treatment genetic screening of patients will eventually enable this knowledge to be applied in clinical practice. Moreover, variation in the genes that code for receptors (drug targets) may mean that some people may produce receptors that do not interact well with the drug. For example, some people have a lack of response to the drug salbutamol, used in the treatment of asthma, due to genetic variation in the gene that codes a receptor on the surface of smooth muscle cells lining airways of the lungs. Drug targets Genes may also determine how many of the receptors are produced on or within cells and genetic variation may mean that some people produce more of these sites than others. The action of the widely used antipsychotic drug haloperidol (Haldol) depends on its ability to bind to the dopamine (D2) receptor site. In one study, 63% of patients whose genetic make-up caused a large number of these receptor sites to be produced had a response to treatment with haloperidol. About 29% of patients with a smaller number of dopamine (D2) receptor sites responded well to the drug. Drug metabolism Pain relief medications such as codeine require an enzyme produced in the liver called CYP2D6 for the drug to be used by the body, break it down and remove it. Variations in the information contained in the CYP2D6 gene determine how much of this enzyme is produced in the liver (The Australasian Genetics Resource Book, 2007). The implication of variations in genotype on the metabolism of the immunosuppressant azathioprine is also an example. Polymorphisms in the gene encoding for the enzyme thiopurine S-methyl transferase (TPMT) lead to changes in the activity of the enzyme and rate of metabolism of azathioprine. Changes in the activity of the enzyme present clinically as an increased risk of neutropenia or a decreased chance of responding to azathioprine, at normal dose ranges. A genetic test for the polymorphism can identify individuals who are more likely to develop neutropenia. Thus, the aim of a pharmacogenetic test here is to minimise an adverse effect, although in other cases, a pharmacogenetic test may be able to predict an effective responseto a medicine by correlating an individuals genotype with the observed pharmacological actions of medicines (phenotype) (Clemerson et al. 2006). Drug development Excluding from clinical trials those people whose genetic makeup would make the drug being tested harmful or ineffective for them will increase the chance that a drug will show itself useful to a particular population group. This would increase the chance that the same drug will make it into the marketplace. Undertaking pre-genetic screening of those patients taking part in a clinical trial should also make the clinical trials smaller, faster, and therefore less expensive. For example, as seen in clinical trials for developing drugs for Alzheimer disease and other forms of dementia (The Australasian Genetics Resource Book, 2007). The application of pharmacogenetics has two main aspects: improvements in the safety and efficacy of medicines. In improving safety, pharmacogenetics works in the following ways: Pharmacogenetic tests reveal genetic variations already known to be associated with adverse reactions, allowing physicians to avoid exposing patients to medicines that would put them at risk. The majority of adverse reactions are caused because of an exaggerated effect of a medicine in the body. Less often, an adverse reaction may be an idiosyncratic response to the medicine. Adverse reactions to medicines have significant costs, in both human and monetary terms. However, it is difficult to ascertain the impact of genetic variation in response to medicines because data concerning adverse reactions often include problems caused by errors in prescription, and because information about other causes such as interaction between different medicines may be non-existent. Results from pharmacogenetic tests may also inform physicians in selecting the medicine most likely to benefit a particular patient. Many medicines are effective in only a proportion of patients treated. Sometimes, for a medicine to be effective, different doses are required for different patients. In the absence of a pharmacogenetic test for efficacy, the most appropriate medicine or dose is conventionally found by trial and error, although in some cases, tests of renal function may be used to predict the appropriate dose. It has been suggested that a trial and error approach to prescription may reduce compliance for medicines that do work, since patients acquire a general aversion to taking medicines because of the unpleasant side-effects which they might experience. This therefore helps in improving efficacy of medicines (Nuffield Council on Bioethics, 2003). A potential barrier to the development of pharmacogenetic tests concerns the application of intellectual property rights. Pharmacogenetic tests may be developed in a number of ways. The pharmaceutical company which is developing the medicine may also develop the pharmacogenetic test. Alternatively, a third party, such as another company or researchers from the public sector may develop the test independently. Furthermore, while the effect of pharmacogenetics may be to reduce some of the costs of developing new medicines, it would be imprudent to infer from this that the cost of purchasing medicines will necessarily fall (Nuffield Council on Bioethics, 2003). Pharmacogenomics Pharmacogenomics is the study of genetic variations that influence individual response to drugs.   Knowing whether a patient carries any of these genetic variations can help prescribers individualise drug therapy, decrease the chance for adverse drug events, and increase the effectiveness of drugs (AMA, 2013).   Pharmacogenomics holds the promise that drugs might be tailor-made for individuals and adapted to each persons own genetic makeup. Environment, diet, age, lifestyle, and state of health all can influence a persons response to medicines, but understanding an individuals genetic makeup is thought to be the key to creating personalised drugs with greater efficacy and safety. Pharmacogenomics combines traditional pharmaceutical sciences such as biochemistry with annotated knowledge of genes, proteins, and single nucleotide polymorphisms (Human Genome Project Information, 2011). The field of pharmacogenomics is still in its infancy. Its use is currently quite limited, but new approaches are under study in clinical trials. In the future, pharmacogenomics will allow the development of tailored drugs to treat a wide range of health problems, including cardiovascular disease, Alzheimer disease, cancer, HIV/AIDS, and asthma (Genetics Home Reference, 2013). The cytochrome P450 (CYP) family of liver enzymes is responsible for breaking down more than 30 different classes of drugs. DNA variations in genes that code for these enzymes can influence their ability to metabolise some drugs. Less active or inactive forms of CYP enzymes that are unable to break down and properly eliminate drugs from the body can cause drug overdose in patients. Clinical trials researchers use genetic tests for variations in cytochrome P450 genes to screen and monitor patients. In addition, many pharmaceutical companies screen their chemical compounds to see how well they are broken down by variant forms of CYP enzymes. Another enzyme called TPMT (thiopurine methyltransferase) plays an important role in the chemotherapy treatment of common childhood leukemia by breaking down a class of therapeutic compounds called thiopurines. A small percentage of Caucasians have genetic variants that prevent them from producing an active form of this protein. As a result, thiopurines elevate to toxic levels in the patient because the inactive form of TMPT is unable to break down the drug. Today, doctors can use a genetic test to screen patients for this deficiency, and the TMPT activity is monitored to determine appropriate thiopurine dosage levels (Human Genome Project Information, 2011). Similarly to pharmacogenetics, pharmacogenomics  has the potential to  provide tailored drug therapy based on genetically determined variation in effectiveness and side effects (AMA, 2013). This will mean: More powerful medicines   Pharmaceutical companies will be able to produce therapies more targeted to specific diseases, maximising therapeutic effects while decreasing damage to nearby healthy cells. Better, safer drugs the first time   Recovery time will go down and safety will go up as the likelihood of adverse reactions goes down or is eliminated altogether. Improvements in drug discovery, design, and development are obvious applications for pharmacogenomics. A deeper understanding of the genetic factors which cause variance in drug metabolism can aid in the design of drugs with improved potency, reduced toxicity, and fewer side effects. For example, pharmacogenomics can identify potential drug targets (targets are typically enzymes or other proteins), and determine which targets are least prone to genetic variance. By selecting drug targets which are not prone to genetic variance, drug designers can create drugs which are more likely to have standard, expected, and safe reactions in people who take it. More accurate methods of determining appropriate drug dosages   Current methods of basing dosages on weight and age will be replaced with dosages based on a persons genetics how well the body processes the medicine and the time it takes to metabolise it. Pharmacogenomics can also be useful in clinical trials for drugs which have passed through the approval process sufficiently that human trials are possible. Using this approach, a technique called genostratification can be used in selecting participants for clinical trials. This means that clinicians use genetic typing to select participants who are genetically more likely to react positively to the treatment which is under study. This can potentially allow for an improved level of treatment success, and means that proof of concept can be achieved sooner. This technique can also allow for a reduction in the required sample size for the trial, or shortened trial duration. Ultimately, a drug which may help save or improve lives can be used in the general public more quickly than otherwise would be possible. Economic issues from molecule to marketplace Pharmacogenomics eventually can lead to an overall decrease in the cost of health care because of decreases in: the number of adverse drug reactions, the number of failed drug trials, the time it takes to get a drug approved, the length of time patients are on medication, the number of medications patients must take to find an effective therapy, and the effects of a disease on the body (through early detection). Applying pharmacogenomics to patient treatment can help devise individualised treatment regimes, to ensure that patients receive the drugs which are most appropriate for their genetic makeup. In particular, this approach has significant potential in treating cancer, because there is a great degree of variance in the way people react to chemotherapy drugs. Tumors themselves are highly variable in genetic terms, and this partially accounts for the variance in drug responses. Using an approach which individualizes treatment regimes, to accommodate for this variance could improve cancer treatments significantly. Pharmacogenomics is useful in general for patient treatment because it has the potential to identify on an individual basis the drugs which might cause adverse reactions. A person who might experience such a reaction can then be prescribed an alternative drug (Lloyd, 2008). However, there are several potential barriers to pharmacogenomics which have to be overcome before the above discussed benefits of pharmacogenomics can be realised (Human Genome Project Information, 2011). These include the following: Complexity of finding gene variations that affect drug response   Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) are DNA sequence variations that occur when a single nucleotide (A,T,C,or G) in the genome sequence is altered. SNPs occur every 100 to 300 bases along the 3-billion-base human genome, therefore millions of SNPs must be identified and analyzed to determine their involvement (if any) in drug response. Further complicating the process is our limited knowledge of which genes are involved with each drug response. Since many genes are likely to influence responses, obtaining the big picture on the impact of gene variations is highly time-consuming and complicated. Limited drug alternatives   Only one or two approved drugs may be available for treatment of a particular condition. If patients have gene variations that prevent them using these drugs, they may be left without any alternatives for treatment. Disincentives for drug companies to make multiple pharmacogenomic products   Most pharmaceutical companies have been successful with their one size fits all approach to drug development. Since it costs hundreds of millions of dollars to bring a drug to market, will these companies be willing to develop alternative drugs that serve only a small portion of the population? Educating healthcare providers   Introducing multiple pharmacogenomic products to treat the same condition for different population subsets undoubtedly will complicate the process of prescribing and dispensing drugs. Physicians must execute an extra diagnostic step to determine which drug is best suited to each patient. To interpret the diagnostic accurately and recommend the best course of treatment for each patient, all prescribing physicians, regardless of specialty, will need a better understanding of genetics. Conclusion Despite the various potential barriers to both pharmacogenetics and pharmacogenomics, these fields are rapidly evolving with the promise that someday a simple and rapid DNA test will determine potential risks of adverse effects with a certain drug, and thus turning to another drug which would be more suitable for the patient.

Antidote for the Iron Law of Oligarchy Essay

In every diseases there will always a doctors to help us to cure it. In every illness it has always a medicine to manage the pain. But if we connect it to our society today, maybe it doesn’t have medicine or doctors that cure this kind of illnesses. This kind of attitude maybe we cannot erase to our society. This attitude maybe we can connect to the iron law of oligarchy. What is the iron law of oligarchy? â€Å"The iron law of oligarchy is a political theory, first developed by the German syndicalist sociologist Robert Michels. It states that all forms of organization, regardless of how democratic or autocratic they may be at the start, will eventually and inevitably develop into oligarchies. The reasons for this are the technical indispensability of leadership, the tendency of the leaders to organize themselves and to consolidate their interests; the gratitude of the led towards the leaders, and the general immobility and passivity of the masses.† – From Wikipedia In connection to the definition of iron law of oligarchy, our government is considered as the democratic government. Where in it have presidents that are given a rule in every department and bureaus. Where in this rule are all obey by all the department and bureaus. Another characteristic of our government as a democratic country is that it let people to choose their own leaders. But these actions are not enough to tell that we have our own freedom, but these actions give other people reasons to abuse their powers. Instead of serving us, they use their positions to do the things that they want. What are the reasons why they do those things? What are the things that we need to do so that their actions are change? Here the things that we need to do. If the iron law of oligarchy is the rule of few people or the elite people, we can reverse it so that we can make it the rule of many people. Where in all the rules are all consult to us before they implement it. Another thing is, when it giving us the right information. Sometimes our government is not giving the exact information that we need to know about what happen to our government. And lastly, no oligarchy without material and power perks and bureaucracy. Part of the changes is a constant flow of reliable information among the people. Bureaucracy’s weakness is related to its inability to keep secrets and control the information flows. It is weakened as it loses the power to the flow of the information among us.

salinger Essay - 843 Words

LIFE AND PHILOSOPHY OF J.D. SALINGER J.D. Salinger is one of the most renowned writers of his time. J. D. Salinger is most known for his controversial in the Catcher in the Rye. Salinger is also known for many of his writings such as Franney and Zooey, Nine Stories, and Raise High the Roof Beam, Carpenters. The summer of 1930 he was voted â€Å"The Most Popular Writer†. â€Å"Salinger is a beautifully deft, professional who gives us a chance to catch quick, half-amused, half-frightened glimpses of ourselves and our contemporaries, as he confronts us with his brilliant mirror images† (Lomazoff 1). In the novel, Catcher in the Rye, there is a relationship between the main character, Holden Caulfield, and Salinger. J.D. Salinger’s Catcher in†¦show more content†¦nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;In the mid-1940’s Zen Buddhism began to influence Salinger’s life and writings. Also, in the early 50’s Salinger met frequently met with teenagers while writing Catcher. These influences, a nd also the fact that he was an â€Å"unknown† writer made him free from clichà ©s and slogans that the rest of the world fell prey to. Salinger only seeked independence, growth, and stability in his life. Because Salinger was not a renowned writer, he did not have to worry about meeting expectations or censorship. Salinger would never try to censor himself, and felt that he should not have to. He frequently speaks of a phony society in which we all live in and in order to be accepted into the adult world, we must become a â€Å"phony†. Being a â€Å"phony† meaning, adjusting yourself to become what is socially acceptable even though it may not be what you desire to achieve. â€Å"His work is a unique phenomenon, important as the voice of a â€Å"silent generation† in revolt against a â€Å"phony world† and in search of mystical escapes from a deteriorating society rather than â€Å"causes† promising political revolution or reform†(French 4). Many of Salingers views for The Catcher in the Rye come from his intense hatred for hypocrisy. In the novel, Holden Caulfield feels that he must not submit to the phoniness of life, but attain an attitude of tolerance, understanding, and live which will make his life endurable. â€Å"From a social economicShow MoreRelated Jd Salinger Essay772 Words   |  4 Pages Salinger, J(erome) D(avid) (1919- ), American novelist and short story writer, known for his stories dealing with the intellectual and emotional struggles of adolescents who are alienated from the empty, materialistic world of their parents. Salingers work is marked by a profound sense of craftsmanship, a keen ear for dialogue, and a deep awareness of the frustrations of life in America after World War II (1939-1945). Jerome David Salinger was born and raised in New York City. He began writingRead MoreJD Salinger Research Paper1671 Words   |  7 Pages Jerome David Salinger, also known as J. D. Salinger, is a fascinating author best known for his novel, Catcher in the Rye. Although Salinger only published one novel, he wrote several short stories for magazines like The New Yorker and Story. A large number of these stories went on to be compiled into books such as Nine Stories, Franny and Zooey, and Raise High the Roof Beam, Carpenters and Seymour: An Introduction. Despite the fact Salinger has not published any stories in over 45 years, his reputationRead MoreThe Catcher in the Rye by J.D. Salinger637 Words   |  3 PagesThe Catcher in the Rye, by J.D Salinger, consists of many minor characters. There are more than about sixty characters in the novel in which only three of them are major characters (Holden, Allie, and Phoebe) and the rest minor. Many of these characters are just mentioned with no lasting impact on either the novel itself or Holden. Salinger uses minor characters in the Catcher in the Rye to tell the readers about Holden and his views about the world. The first minor character seen in the CatcherRead More J.d. Salinger Essay2971 Words   |  12 PagesDavid Salinger was to become one of America’s greatest contemporary authors. In 1938 Salinger briefly attended Ursinus College in Pennsylvania where he wrote a column, amp;quot;Skipped Diploma,amp;quot; which featured movie reviews for his college newspaper. Salinger made his writing debut when he published his first short story, amp;quot;The Young Folks,amp;quot; in Whit Burnett’s Story magazine (French, xiii). He was paid only twenty-five dollars. In 1939, at the age of 20, Salinger had notRead MoreThe Catcher in the Rye by J.D. Salinger983 Words   |  4 PagesCatcher in the Rye Essay Throughout Catcher in the Rye there are a lot of small parts of the story where it would be linked to the book and to the text all together. J.D. Salinger created a lot of important passages that would be associated with what type of message that he was trying to convey to the audience. Salinger would develop certain characters like Phoebe through her description and actions to have a influence on Holden, thus causing him to change as a character and reveal sides of himRead MoreThe Laughing Man by J.D. Salinger878 Words   |  4 PagesJ.D. Salinger (Jerome Davis Salinger) was said by some people to be one of the best American Authors of past century. Salinger’s works reflects the many experiences he had as a child. One of the more common focuses tends to be his fascination with protecting the innocence in children. Salinger was born in New York City an attended public school until he switched to the exclusive McBurney School. In attending this school, Salinger was called an â€Å"academically unexceptional student†. After this heRead MoreThe Catcher in the Rye by J.D. Salinger944 Words   |  4 PagesMany people have different aspects and impressions on a teenager’s life. Some say society is the problem for their misbehaviours while others say it is the child who is responsible. Catcher in the Rye by J.D Salinger tells a story of a teenage boy named Holden Caulfield who gets kicked out from school to school. He never pushed himself in academics or anything and ended up failing, at most, everything. He re-tells what happened to him in New York after he got kicked out of Pencey Prep and secretlyRead MoreThe Catcher in the Rye by J.D. Salinger1005 Words   |  5 Pagesof J.D. Salinger’s classic coming of age tale The Catcher in the Rye, entices readers through his hyper-cri tical scrutinization of the post-war consumer world. The novel itself is acclaimed to be quite autobiographical; the similarities between Salinger and Holden are numerous. Holden is an avid critic of materialistic American ideals, and he aims to preserve innocence in others, and to save himself from falling into the land of adulthood. After failing out of prep school, Holden retires to theRead MoreThe Catcher in the Rye by J.D. Salinger654 Words   |  3 Pagesthe first questions that came to my mind when I received the first assignment notice that we would be reading The Catcher in the Rye for English class. The title is most likely the single most important word choice that the author must make. J.D. Salinger uses the title in the book to allude to more than just when Holden sees the young child singing. J.D. Salingers title, The Catcher in the Rye, alludes to the conflict Holden faces of sexuality when growing up. The first reference made to the titleRead MoreThe Story of J.D. Salinger2489 Words   |  10 PagesThe Story of J. D. Salinger J. D. Salinger became one of the most popular and known American authors in America today. Up to this day students from all over the country have read and purchased the novel â€Å"The Catcher in the Rye† which was a novel that was not so long ago controversial due to vulgar language, sexual references, and unacceptable behavior; parents were concerned that J. D. Salinger’s novel was going to influence their children. Salinger was one of many authors that stood out more

Manufacturing Sector in India - 1909 Words

ARTICLE ON MANUFACTURING SECTOR IN INDIA Manufacturing key to growth above 6.5%, says RBI http://www.tribuneindia.com/2012/20120806/biz.htm#1 India needs to focus more on manufacturing in order to achieve GDP growth more than 6.5 %, Reserve Bank of India has said. The manufacturing sector has the scope for creating jobs for millions of people who leave other sectors such as agriculture, RBI Governor D Subbarao said in his keynote address here at Centre for Economic and Social Studies yesterday. His remarks assume significance in the backdrop of dwindling contribution of manufacturing sector to the GDP. India s economic growth rate slipped to 5.3 % in the fourth quarter of 2011-12, the lowest in nearly nine years, following†¦show more content†¦Other emerging economies have higher share to GDP such as Thailand, at 40 %, and in China, around 35 %. India is facing the unemployment problem largely because of lack of proper growth in manufacturing sector. In an economy at this stage development, a large chunk has to come from manufacturing. In the next 1520 years, India will see the largest migration in history that has ever happened from rural to urban areas. To feed the growing population, we have to increase our food productivity. Second, today 55 % of employment is still in agriculture, of which a large part of it is disguised unemployment. To increase agricultural productivity, we have to reduce this; where, then, will these people go? So India needs manufacturing to grow. It is also clear that manufacturing has to grow a couple of percentage points higher than that of GDP, to be able to increase its share and create the jobs. Keynesian theory: When we talk about Keynesian model, we have learned that government intervention is necessary for the economy to grow when the market fails to bring itself to equilibrium. The manufacturing sector has been stagnant for a long period now. The Indian market is huge enough with potential talent to provide it a good base for RD growth. On the basis of the recent trends in terms of investments in particularShow MoreRelatedMake Indi The Road Ahead For India s Development Saga Or Is It Just Another Rhetoric?1663 Words   |  7 PagesMake in India: the road ahead for India’s Development Saga or is it just another rhetoric? Abstract: â€Å"Make in India† campaign is an initiative that attracts the industrialists to make India a manufacturing hub that helps to create jobs. India ranks 142nd in the ease of doing business and it is becoming increasingly difficult for both Indian and foreign businessmen to start a business in India. The infrastructure in India is not good enough to attract investors. There is a lack of proper connectivityRead MoreIndia s An Indian Economy1488 Words   |  6 PagesMake In India campaign is an initiative by Narendra Modi, which was introduced on 2nd October 2014. 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According to government reports, the ‘Make in India’ initiative received remarkably good responseRead MoreThe First National Commission On Labour Essay1179 Words   |  5 PagesSecond National Commission on Labour There were three Labour Commissions designated at various purposes of time to reconsiderLabour Laws in India. The Royal Commission on Labour also known as the Whitley Commission designated in 1928 was appointed to report and make suggestions on the current states of Labour in industrial and plantation sector in British India, on the wellbeing, adequacy and conditions of the labours also on the relations of employers and workers.On 24th Dec, 1966The First NationalRead MoreFederal And State Taxes Into A Single Tax Essay1353 Words   |  6 Pagestaxes. Accordingly, services consumed by a common man such a telecom; rail, transportation, banking, air travel etc. may become expensive. Whereas small cars, FMCG products, etc may become cheaper. Television could get cheaper, as part of the Make in India initiative, the GST is expected to be lower. So at present for Rs 20,000 LED TV you pay around 24.5% tax, shelling out Rs 24,900 eventually. Under GST if it is around 18%, it will cost Rs 23,600, thereby bringing the cost down for the consumer. BuyingRead MoreIndia s Indi Road Ahead For Development1351 Words   |  6 PagesMAKE IN INDIA: ROAD AHEAD FOR DEVELOPMENT Abstract: Prime Minister Mr. Narendra Modi had launched the â€Å"MAKE IN INDIA â€Å"campaign on the 25th of September, 2014 in the presence of eminent Indian industrialists. The initiative taken by him is to promote a culture of trust, transparency among industrialists so as to facilitate the process of doing business in the country. 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Digital India mission is expected toRead MoreIntroduction- A overview of Indian automotive sector The Automobile Industry in India is1600 Words   |  7 Pages Introduction- A overview of Indian automotive sector The Automobile Industry in India is attaining significant growth at a rapid pace with broadening domestic and international markets in the past 15 years. This industry, at present has achieved a turnover of Rs. 1,65,000 crores. An investment of Rs. 50000 crores has already been made and another Rs. 35000 crore is in the conduit. This industry caters to a labour utilization to the tune of 1.31 crore people with 17% contribution to the indirect

Personal Statement - 959 Words

Lee University’ mission in scholastic curriculums is, â€Å"to develop within the students’ knowledge, appreciation, understanding, ability, and skills which will prepare them for responsible Christian living in a complex world.† In implementation, the practice of ethical action, redemptive service and responsible citizenship within the church, local community, and globally, are emphasized. As an older student at Lee University, I admit that these values were heavily communicated to me, by my mother, from an early age. After high school, I did not pursue a vocation and worked in a factory in Alabama for a couple of years. It was during this time, that I realized, that God wanted more out of and for me. I returned home to Tennessee, and by†¦show more content†¦Ethically, the lesson’s encountered by example and course material, nurture my discernment. It is through ethics, that we live our lives being the Bible that others will read. Then, th e redemptive services I have been involved in at Lee, have opened doors to my feeding the needy, witnessing to the lost, and placing my faith, ethics, and love for all walks of life into practice. In my opinion, the old saying is true, â€Å"Practice makes perfect,† and there can never be enough redemptive services for this lost and dying world, but as Christians we must always exercise the gifts of love and healing through the Holy Spirit. This can only be accomplished through faith in God, the guidance of the Holy Spirit, and one’s willingness to answer the call, in all aspects of our daily life. Moreover, by practicing these core values, I do become a responsible citizen because I am willing to give my time and effort to abide by the laws, to help with societal needs, and to live a Biblically moral lifestyle. Yet again, this takes a lot of practice and will continue throughout my lifespan. Core values, in my opinion, are simply labels by which we identify how we are to live our Christian lives. I am perfect in all my imperfections but I strive daily to be the man God wants me to be. My personal development, since birth, has been in God’s hands. At birth, the first words spoken over me was, â€Å"In God’s name, he will be just fine!† Faith in my sovereign God has made doctors wordsShow MoreRelatedPersonal Statement On Personal Responsibility850 Words   |  4 PagesPersonal responsibility is holding you accountable for all your actions and decisions. Being personally responsible means you take ownership of what you do in and with your life. This means from the time you wake up until you go to bed at night, your life is your responsibility and yours alone. Your values, morals, and beliefs are all contributing factors in how you view being personally responsible. 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Spark’s Message in a Bottle Intro Free Essays

This section will provide brief description on various significances of the study. To students. The proposed study will aide students facing emotional difficulties such as peer pressure while academically struggling. We will write a custom essay sample on Spark’s Message in a Bottle Intro or any similar topic only for you Order Now To teachers. The proposed study will help teachers to have deeper understanding with their students having trauma. With this, teachers will have stronger foundation as guidance of their apprentices. To future researcher. The proposed study will benefit and help the future researcher as this serve as their guide. This would be a key with our economy continually struggling o move ahead. Scopes and Limitations The scope of this study is the breakthrough of an individual in traumatic events in life particularly with the loss of a love one. This provided steps gathered from reliable sources on how to deal with such situations. On the other hand, this study limits with psychological/emotional renewal. Methodology The method used in this study was the descriptive one. It aims to describe and interpret what the topic is. The said method in research writing fitted this study as it involves the elements or interpretation of the meaning or significance of what is described. Also, the technique used by the group was content analysis which can be applied to examine any piece of writing or occurrence of recorded communication. Approach to Literary Criticism The process of descriptive research which goes beyond mere gathering suited as the group made moral, humanistic or affective approach defined closed to â€Å"morality’ of literature and to questions of ethical goodness or badness directly affected by the also made in this study as breakdowns concerns personality, inner drives and neurosis. Procedure The researchers, with the procedure of making this study, analyzed first the novel they are to use. They gathered useful resources primarily tackling the problem they are to focus on. The making of a thesis comes next together with the formulation of questions they are to answer in this study. They made an outline from the data they have in hand and started taking notes. Lastly, the group has started the formulation of their paper. Instruments Used The researchers used instruments such as books and internet resources for the study. Articles from reliable magazines and academic papers were also considered by the group. The novel which became the basis of the study was entitled Message in a Bottle written by Nicholas Sparks. How to cite Spark’s Message in a Bottle Intro, Papers

Development of Mathematical Thinking in Children-Free-Samples

Question: Describe the nature and development of Mathematical thinking and numeracy process in children. Answer: Introduction Mathematics, is one such subject which has a very deep impact on all the areas of life such as societal, personal as well as municipal. Hence being educated in the subject of mathematics is considered to be one of the most crucial part for development of opportunities for youth. However the most unfortunate part of this subject is that it is a struggling one for many and thereby they become unresponsive towards mathematics as they keep on facing hurdles with respect to engagement. As is discussed by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, the power of mathematics takes into account the capability of a person to discover, guess and reason rationally and further to this also build such ideas within mathematics and amongst other rational activity. There are various theoretical perspective of learning mathematics of which constructivism and behaviourism are two of them. The said essay discusses about and compares these two perspectives and also how in todays world the way of tea ching and learning mathematics has undergone a drastic change. Theoritical Perspective- Constructivism In Learning And Teaching Mathematics Mathematics is one subject which cannot be taught. Teachers have the role of stimulation within the children so as to aspire to learn the subject. It is a well known fact that students tend to learn mathematics only once they develop their own way of understanding the subject. A constructive perspective states that a teachers role is to ensure that a child learns about a particular subject by providing him/her with such a resource enriched surrounding through which they would guide a students learning. It has various features to offer such as it supports the idea that knowledge is not something that is achieved from the surrounding but something that is created uniquely by each child (Cey 2001). Children today develop new geometric awareness by reflecting on their material and psychological actions. Ideas are said to be constructed when kids incorporate them into their present knowledge base. It is the interpretations of the world that is important and they are formed by experiences. Thus learning of mathematics may be considered as a procedure of adapting to and organizing ones quantitative world rather than digging out the ideas which already have been discovered by someone else in the past (Clements Battista 2009). Mathematical skills and truths are basically formed by the culture around. Thereby, when a teacher asks the students to solve a particular problem in a specific manner, then they are actually putting a hurdle on their constructive thought process, thus curtailing and hampering the growth of the brain. It is one of the best suited and most sought after perspective for learning mathematics in todays world as it helps to serve two main goals. Firstly, children tend to develop such mathematical structures which are complex, abstract and powerful as compared to what they already possess. This helps them to handle such issues and problem which are complicated also in a number of ways. Secondly, the constructive theoretical perspective enables the children to become self-dependent, as well as self-motivated in their mathematical actions. They have a notion that mathematics is a solution to resoling various other problems. They are of the idea that it is the environment, experience as well as self exploration which helps to gain mathematical knowledge rather than being taught by the teacher as any other subject (Bhowmik 2014). Thus instead of giving weightage to only those ways and methods which are already spelt by eminent mathematicians, students try to develop their own unique ways of resolving problems. Thus the said perspective looks upon at the teachers as a guide and not a sage. The Behaviourist Theory Another widely used theoretical perspective in the teaching and learning of mathematics is behaviourist theory. Behaviourism is a theory of learning that deliberates upon impartially apparent behaviours and does not take into account any self-governing activities of the mind. Thus the reactions which happen due to external surroundings, ultimately become habituated and the behaviour is then learned. Thus the said perspective emphasis upon teaching mathematics to students basis certain set methods, ways and formulas without allowing much of deviations, thereby hampering any kind of constructive development of the mind (Coz 2011). Thus it can be rightly said that the behavioural model promotes learning in the form of repeated and learned activities and actions. However, many may prefer this traditional perspective, but even then the flaws it has makes the constructive perspective more logical and acceptable in case of mathematics. The said theory is not best suited to the particular subject as, constructivist instruction provides unsurpassed and paramount value to the growth and augmentation of a childs personal arithmetical ideas. In contrast to the same, the behaviourist perspective gives weightage to only set and pre-defined arithmetical techniques, formulas and concepts. For example, even if most of the teachers are seen continuously utilising existing resources to initiate data, they use them only for an opening, whereas the main aim is to get the conceptual, figurative and recognized mathematics. Unfortunately this theory, unconsciously and involuntarily devalues the brains capacity to think logically and distinguish between the right and wrong (Kinder Carnine, 1991). The students develop a feeling that their instinctive ideas and te chniques are not associated to actual mathematics. But when it comes to constructive perspective, students are asked to find their own techniques for resolution of mathematical problems. They are asked to rack their brains and find a way out to the solution rather than just copying the other persons method stereotypes. This does not mean that the teacher is not required. It simply means that the teacher is required in this kind of an approach as well but for guidance and not spelling out the technique of resolving a mathematical problem. A teacher following the former approach, offer specific tasks and activities and also provides the opportunities for conversation, guides the focus of the attention of children, thereby inconspicuously unswerving their learning. Hence it can be rightly said that behavioural perspective of learning and teaching mathematics fails to bring about reorganizations within students which is successfully done by the constructive approach. Why Has Learning And Teaching Of Mathematics Has Left Behind Rehearsal It can therefore be rightly said that learning and teaching of mathematics is no more restricted towards application of preset formulas and methods but rather full of creativity and construction of ideas as well. It has been almost thirty years wherein constructivism has been ruling the learning theory of mathematics as student engagement is of utmost importance for ensuring that the subject is liked by the student and the interest is developed (Attard 2015). Mathematics is one such subject which helps in the development of logical reasoning skills. Self concept in mathematics is the road to success in this subject and also personal life. There has been a significant shift from the rehearsal methodology of teaching mathematics to that of engaging pedagogy which is more fun and creative in nature (Klinger 2015). In this world of globalisation, deep rooted understanding of logics is a must which cannot be learnt via certain techniques but can use them learnt through experience and constructive development of ideas. Mathematics is one such subject which demands development of such skills which would help the students solve such issues and problems which may otherwise not be possible via certain preset formulas, simply because of their ability to learn the subject by application of various models. The engaging pedagogy, unlike the behaviourist theoretical perspective, calls for the teachers to use such a method which would encourage the students to build upon each others ideas and perspectives and to discuss about the problem amongst themselves till such an extent that they have been able to develop a shared understanding of a concept (Long 2011). By getting away the age old method of teacher opening the book, mathematics has become more of a playful subject wherein students are made to be a pa rt of the classroom and thereby forced to construct new ways of resolving problems (Cresswell 2016). This shift has led to involvement and development of interest of many students towards this subject which otherwise was being lost. Students were lacking the space to think and re-think until the problem was resolved and thus this method helped mathematical engagement. Conclusion Thereby on a concluding note, with reference to mathematics learning and teaching for those students who are anti-maths, the age old method has to be left as the said disengaging predagogy has many deficiencies which has a direct negative implication on them towards the subject. Student engagement gives way to development of self-confidence, self-efficiency as well as personality of a student. They are made to feel a part of the subject and the fact that their ideas are also given weightage helps them develop greater interest towards learning that subject. Constructivism has changed the outlook of teaching and learning of mathematics greatly wherein students are guided by their teachers who no more emphasise upon only application of stereotypes formulas, but welcome ideas and solutions to a problem in various ways. Lastly, students found it authorizing to be able to show their efforts and to have the occasion to rationalize their selections in an atmosphere where everyone is respecte d and appreciated for the efforts being put in. Those who were disengaged also showed interest and were inclined towards application of engaging predagogy which involved fun, playful and creative ways and means of learning. References: Attard,C. (2015). Engaging teachers to engage students with mathematics : Building teacher capacity through sustained professional development. Retrieved from https://www.westernsydney.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0006/864168/Engaging_Teachers_to_Engage_Students_with_Mathematics-Final_Report_for_web.pdf Bhowmik,M. (2014). Constructivism approach in mathematics teaching and assessment of mathematical understanding. Retrieved from https://basicresearchjournals.org/education/pdf/Monoranjan.pdf Cey,T. (2001). Moving towards Constructivist Classrooms. Retrieved from https://etad.usask.ca/802papers/ceyt/ceyt.htm Cox,M.W. (2011). The Effects of Behaviorist And Constructivist Instruction On Student Performance In College- Level Remedial Mathematics. Retrieved from https://oaktrust.library.tamu.edu/bitstream/handle/1969.1/ETD-TAMU-2011-08-9920/COX-DISSERTATION.pdf Clements,D.H. Battista,M.T. (2009). Constructivist Learning and Teaching. Retrieved from file:///C:/Users/E-ZONE/Downloads/751_chapter.pdf Cresswell,J. (2016). Disengagement, Pedagogical Eros and (the undoing of?) Dialogic pedagogy. Dialogic Pedagogy: AN International Online Journal. 4. 27-46. Retrieved from file:///C:/Users/E-ZONE/Downloads/182-722-2-PB.pdf Kinder,D. Carnine,D. (1991). Direct Instruction: What it is and what it is becoming. Journal of Behavioral Education. 1, 193-213 Klinger,C.M. (2015). Behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism or connectivism ? Tackling mathematics anxiety with isms for a digital age. Retrieved from https://www.alm-online.net/images/ALM/proceedings/alm16/Articles/15klinger.pdf Long,A.M. (2011). Engaging and Disengaging : a Qualitative Study of Middle School Girls and Mathematics. Retrieved from https://scholarworks.uvm.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1139context=graddis